Introduction to Paul’s Letter to the Romans Part 1: The Historical Context
Steven L. Childers
Introduction
The Reformer Martin Luther called Romans the “purest gospel.”[1] In William Tyndale’s 1534 edition of the New Testament, he called Romans “the principle and most excellent part of the New Testament” and “a light and a way in unto the whole scripture.”[2]
People often think of Romans as a New Testament book that gives us a list of Bible doctrines much like a book on systematic theology. Although we find biblical doctrines in Romans, it is not a systematic theology. It’s a letter, rooted in history, written by an individual author to specific people at a definite time and for a unique purpose.
Although Paul was highly educated in both Greek and Jewish traditions, he shouldn’t be seen as a seminary professor who writes papers or books in an academy on Christian doctrine so they can be studied by those who are interested in learning theology.
Instead, Paul was a church planting movement leader who wrote his letters in response to the real problems and questions he faced as he was living out God’s mission to see God’s name honored and his kingdom come throughout the whole world by planting and developing healthy churches. Missions professor Arthur Glasser calls the New Testament authors task theologians.
The New Testament authors and local communities of faith, in whose midst these documents were written, were not marginal to participation in the mission to which God had called his Church. These authors were all missionaries. When they were engaged in theological reflection, its focus was on the missionary task in hand. They were “task” theologians, and what they produced had relevance to the particular tasks in which they were involved.[3]
So in order to understand and apply Paul’s letter to the Romans to our lives correctly we need to understand: 1) the general historical context in which he wrote the letter, 2) the broader message of Paul in all his letters, and 3) the unique historical context and overarching message Paul wrote to the church in Rome.
I. The Historical Context
A. The State of the World
Princeton Seminary professor Charles Hodge (1797-1878) writes, “When Paul and the other Apostles were called to enter upon their important duties, the world was in a deplorable and yet most interesting state.” Hodge mentions three observations:
Heathenism and Judaism were in the last stages of decay.
Polytheism among the Greeks was being rejected and ridiculed.
Philosophies of Stoicism and Platonism were leaving people empty.[4]
“Hence, when the glorious gospel was revealed, thousands of hearts, in all parts of the world, were prepared, by the grace of God, to exclaim, ‘This is all our desire and all our salvation!’”[5]
B. The Upbringing and Early Education of Paul
Born A.D. 6 and raised the son of a Jewish Roman citizen in Tarsus, the capital of Cilicia (modern eastern Turkey) – seen almost as culturally equal with Athens, Greece and Alexandria, Egypt. “I am a Jew, from Tarsus in Cilicia, a citizen of no obscure city” (Acts 21:39).
Educated in Greek thought as seen in his logical and linear arguments in New Testament passages like Acts 17, 1 Corinthians 15, and Titus 1. He could read, write, and speak ancient Greek (Koine) – the language of the New Testament.
Educated in the Jewish faith (A.D. 20-30) and traditions that included learning a trade (tent making) and studying Torah in Jerusalem under the Jewish master-scholar Gamaliel. He becomes a Pharisee. “I am a Jew, born in Tarsus in Cilicia, but brought up in this city (Jerusalem), educated at the feet of Gamaliel according to the strict manner of the law of our fathers” (Acts 22:3). He could also read, write, and speak Hebrew – the language of the Old Testament.
Citizen of the Roman Empire. Paul acquired his Roman citizenship at birth, having been born the son of a Jewish Roman citizen of Tarsus. Roman citizenship was a privileged political, legal, and social status given to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Paul often used his Roman citizenship to his advantage. (Acts 16:36-39, Acts 22:25-28)
Commenting on the providential preparation of Paul for his ministry, Hodge writes, “As Luther was educated in a Roman Catholic seminary, and thoroughly instructed in the scholastic theology for which he was to be the great opposer, so the apostle Paul was initiated into all the doctrines and modes of reasoning of the Jews, with whom his principal controversy was to be carried on.”[6]
C. The Conversion, Commission, and Revelation of Paul: Damascus and Arabia
Conversion: Paul persecutes followers of Jesus in Jerusalem and Judea. “Saul was ravaging the church, and entering house after house, he dragged off men and women and committed them to prison” (Acts 8:3). Then he was “immediately converted”, i.e. without human instrumentality, by the ascended Jesus Christ. (Gal. 1:13-14) The sudden nature of Paul’s conversion is described in Acts (9:3–6; 22:6–11; 26:12–18).
Commission: Paul was commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospel to “Gentiles and kings and the children of Israel” through Ananias who explained to Paul the meaning of his Damascus road encounter. (Acts 9:10-16)[7]
Revelation (A.D. 33-36): Paul was also taught the gospel by “immediate revelation”, i.e. without human instrumentality, by the ascended Jesus Christ. “For I would have you know, brothers, that the gospel that was preached by me is not man's gospel. For I did not receive it from any man, nor was I taught it, but I received it through a revelation of Jesus Christ.” (Gal. 1:11-12)
Paul’s “revelation of Jesus Christ”, the gospel, began soon after his conversion when he decided not go to Jerusalem to be with the other apostles, and continued in Arabia for up to three years.[8]
“But when he who had set me apart before I was born, and who called me by his grace, was pleased to reveal his Son to me, in order that I might preach him among the Gentiles, I did not immediately consult with anyone; nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who were apostles before me, but I went away into Arabia, and returned again to Damascus. Then after three years I went up to Jerusalem” (Gal. 1:15-18).
A significant part of Jesus’ revelation to Paul in Arabia probably included explanations of the Old Testament Scriptures, similar to the resurrected Jesus’ revelation given to those who said, “Did not our hearts burn within us while he talked to us on the road, while he opened to us the Scriptures?” (Luke 24:32)[9]
D. The Early Ministry Years of Paul: Damascus, Jerusalem, Tarsus, Antioch
Damascus (A.D. 36): After Paul’s extended “revelation of Jesus Christ” in Arabia, he “returned to Damascus” (Gal. 1:17) where he “spent many days with the disciples” (Acts 9:19, 23) preaching the gospel message in the Jewish synagogues in the area. But soon the “Jews plotted to kill him” so he left Damascus for Jerusalem by barely escaping with the help of his disciples.
“And immediately he proclaimed Jesus in the synagogues, saying, “He is the Son of God.” And all who heard him were amazed and said, “Is not this the man who made havoc in Jerusalem of those who called upon this name? And has he not come here for this purpose, to bring them bound before the chief priests?” But Saul increased all the more in strength, and confounded the Jews who lived in Damascus by proving that Jesus was the Christ.” When many days had passed, the Jews plotted to kill him, but their plot became known to Saul. They were watching the gates day and night in order to kill him, but his disciples took him by night and let him down through an opening in the wall, lowering him in a basket” (Acts 9:20-25).
Jerusalem (A.D. 36): Paul was in Jerusalem for fifteen days. Although the disciples were all afraid to meet with him at first, Barnabas took him to meet with Peter and James and told them about Paul’s bold preaching in Damascus.
Luke writes, “And when he [Paul] had come to Jerusalem, he attempted to join the disciples. And they were all afraid of him, for they did not believe that he was a disciple. But Barnabas took him and brought him to the apostles and declared to them how on the road he had seen the Lord, who spoke to him, and how at Damascus he had preached boldly in the name of Jesus” (Acts 9:26-27).
Paul wrote, “I went up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas (Peter) and remained with him fifteen days. But I saw none of the apostles except James the Lord's brother.” (Gal. 1:18-19)
During his brief time in Jerusalem, Paul focused much of his time preaching, teaching, and arguing boldly with the Greek-speaking Jews (Hellenists). Luke writes, “So he went in and out among them at Jerusalem, preaching boldly in the name of the Lord. And he spoke and disputed against the Hellenists” (Acts 9:28-29).[10]
Soon Jesus appeared to him in a vision and told him to leave Jerusalem. Paul said, “When I had returned to Jerusalem and was praying in the temple, I fell into a trance and saw him (Jesus) saying to me, ‘Make haste and get out of Jerusalem quickly, because they will not accept your testimony about me’” (Acts 22:17-18).
When the disciples in Jerusalem learned that the Jews had a plot to kill Paul, they immediately sent him back to his home town. “And when the brothers learned this, they brought him down to Caesarea and sent him off to Tarsus.” (Acts 9:30)
Tarsus and Caesarea (A.D. 36-44 – Hidden Years): The next several years are called Paul’s hidden years because there is no mention of him in the period between his time when he left Jerusalem for Tarsus (Acts 9:26-30) and the time (A.D. 44) when Barnabas came to Tarsus to recruit him to come to the church in Antioch. (Acts 11:25-26) Paul refers briefly to this time in his letter to the Galatians.
“Then I went into the regions of Syria and Cilicia (Tarsus). And I was still unknown in person to the churches of Judea (Jerusalem) that are in Christ. They only were hearing it said, ‘He who used to persecute us is now preaching the faith he once tried to destroy.’ And they glorified God because of me” (Gal. 1:21-24). “So Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for Saul, and when he had found him, he brought him to Antioch” (Acts 11:25-26a).[11]
Antioch and Jerusalem (A.D. 44-46): “For a whole year they (Barnabas and Paul) met with the church and taught a great many people. And in Antioch the disciples were first called Christians” (Acts 11:26b). During this time, a famine spread throughout the regions. In response, the Antioch church sent a financial gift to the elders of the Jerusalem church through Barnabas and Paul.
“So the disciples determined, every one according to his ability, to send relief to the brothers living in Judea (Jerusalem). And they did so, sending it to the elders by the hand of Barnabas and Saul” (Acts 11:29-30).
“And Barnabas and Saul returned from Jerusalem when they had completed their service, bringing with them John, whose other name was Mark” (Acts 12:25).
E. The Missionary Journeys and Letters of Paul[12]
The Jews had been disbursed everywhere throughout the world. The Roman empire normally allowed Jewish people to assemble in synagogues, except for a period of persecution under Claudius’ rule (41-51). Paul’s church planting strategy was to use his “religious credentials” to preach the gospel first in the Jewish synagogues that resulted in the conversion of two types of people: 1) the Jews and 2) the Gentile proselytes called “God-fearers”. From these two groups, Jewish and Gentile converts, Paul would plant new churches.
First Missionary Journey (A.D. 47-48)
First missionary journey with Barnabas, to Cyprus and Galatia
At the Council of Jerusalem (A.D. 49)
Paul argues successfully that Gentile Christians need not follow Jewish law; returns to Antioch; confronts Peter over question of Jewish law
Second Missionary Journey (A.D. 49-52)
Second missionary journey with Silas, through Asia Minor and Greece; settles in Corinth. Writes letters to the Thessalonians. Returns for brief visits to Jerusalem and Antioch (A.D. 52).
Third Missionary Journey (A.D. 52-57)
Stays in Ephesus (A.D. 52-55); writes the letters to the Galatians and Corinthians. Travels through Greece and possibly Illyricum (modern Yugoslavia) (A.D. 55-57); and from Corinth he writes his letter to the Romans.[13]
Paul’s Arrest and Death
A.D. 57–59 Returns to Jerusalem and arrested; imprisoned at Caesarea
A.D. 59–60 Appears before Festus and appeals to Caesar; voyage to Rome
A.D. 60–62 Under house arrest at Rome; writes letters to the Philippians, Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon
A.D. 62–64 Released; journeys to Spain?; writes letters to Timothy and Titus
A.D. 64 Returns to Rome; martyred
[1] Luther, “Preface to Romans,” 447.
[2] Quoted in Bruce, Frederick Fyvie. The Epistle of Paul to the Romans: An Introduction and Commentary. 1st edition, Eerdmans Pub Co, 1963, 9.
[3] Glasser, Arthur, Kingdom and Mission (1992), Pasadena, Fuller Seminary Publishing, 6. See also Engen, C. E. V., Gilliland, D. S., Glasser, A. F., & Redford, S. B. (2003). Announcing the Kingdom: The Story of God’s Mission in the Bible (8.2.2003 edition). Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic.
[4] Hodge, Dr. Charles. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. New issue of 1886 edition, Wm. B. Eerdmans-Lightning Source, 1950, 3
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid. 4. See Paul’s arguments: “Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they offspring of Abraham? So am I.” (2 Cor. 11:22) “If anyone else thinks he has reason for confidence in the flesh, I have more: circumcised on the eighth day, of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; as to the law, a Pharisee … as to righteousness under the law, blameless.” (Phil. 3:4-6)
[7] “Probably, therefore, Acts 9 presents the actual sequence of events connected with Paul’s conversion, Acts 22 adds the confirming vision at Jerusalem some three years later, and Acts 26 is an abbreviated testimony before a king … for Paul the events were inherently one.” Longenecker, Richard N. The Ministry and Message of Paul. Zondervan Pub. House, 1971.
[8] The Bible does not reveal exactly how long Paul spent in Arabia. In Gal. 1:18 Paul tells us that the entire time from after his conversion until he “went up to Jerusalem” was three years. This three-year period includes Paul’s return to Tarsus and brief ministry there (he refers to that time as “many days” in Gal. 1:17) after being in Arabia and before going to Jerusalem.
[9] See also Luke 24:44-45, where the resurrected Jesus said to his disciples, “These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.” Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures.”
[10] Paul’s aggressive, public debates with the Greek-speaking Jews must have alarmed the apostles and disciples in Jerusalem. Only a few years earlier the deacon Stephen, a Greek-speaking Jewish Christian, also publicly debated these Hellenists – resulting in his trial before the Jewish authorities (Sanhedrin) and public execution by stoning. (Acts 6:8-15; 7; 8:1-2) Paul “approved of their killing him” (Acts 8:1a). Widespread persecution of Jewish Christians (diaspora) followed resulting in the fleeing of Jewish Christians throughout Judea, Samaria, and most likely beyond. (Acts 8:1b) In God’s providence, as they became involved in Jewish synagogues throughout the world, the foundations were being laid for the advance of the gospel through future church planting ministries in obedience to Jesus command to be his witnesses “in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8).
[11] “Many of the hardships and trials enumerated in Second Corinthians 11:23-27 may stem from situations faced at Caesarea and Tarsus during those days, for they find no place in the records of the later missionary journeys in Acts. Perhaps the ecstatic experience of Second Corinthians 12:1-4 also comes from this period in his life.” Longenecker, Richard N. The Ministry and Message of Paul. Zondervan Pub. House, 1971, p 37
[12] Janet Meyer Everts, The Apostle Paul and His Times: Christian History Timeline, Christian History, Christianity Today.
[13] In keeping with normal ancient custom, Paul used a scribe (amanuensis) identified in Romans 16:22 as Tertius, to actually write the letter that Paul dictated.